The+Role+of+the+Physical+Environment+on+Religion+and+Technology

“//Man is a product of the earth's surface. This means not merely that he is a child of the earth, dust of her dust; but that the earth has mothered him, fed him, set him tasks, directed his thoughts, confronted him with difficulties that have strengthened his body and sharpened his wits, given him his problems of navigation or irrigation, and at the same time whispered hints for their solution//” (Semple).
 * The Role of the Physical environmental on Harappan Religion and Technology **
 * by **
 * Beata Vida **
 * Introduction:**

The Indus Valley Civilization also known as the Harappan civilization lasted for more than 2,000 years in its early, mature, and late forms. The mature period flourished between 2600-1900 BCE and was marked by large planned urban centers, extensive trade, craft specialization, writing, and an advanced material culture (Chakrabarti 140). Some of the largest urban cities such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have been extensively excavated. The artifacts in these and other sites indicate that the physical environment of the Indus River Valley had a large influence on the religious beliefs and technological advancements of the Harappan people. The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of what is today Pakistan (Figure 1). Located between the Himalayan and Hindu Kush mountains, it extended from the [|Balochistan] Plateau which lies to the west, to [|Sindh] in the east (Fig. 2). It reached northward to Punjab from the east of the [|Jhelum River] to [|Rupar] on the upper [|Sutlej] (1999/Chakrabarti 153). To the east are the Thar Desert and an expanse of alluvial plains. Most of the large settlements were located near the rivers, such as the Indus River and its tributaries, and the Ghaggar-Hakra River, which today is an intermittent river that flows only during the monsoon season.
 * Geography:**



The climate and environment in this area was very diverse. The region varied from desert, to mountains, to wooded highlands all with variable rainfall (Possehl 5). People had to deal with unpredictable periods of floods, droughts, monsoons, e arthquakes and changes in the course of rivers (Allchin 11). The mountain ranges and the surrounding oceans played a role in monsoonal rainfall. In some places the climate was moist and humid, supporting dense forests and grass land, where animals such as tigers, rhinos and elephants roamed (Allchin 13). The western highlands afforded excellent grazing to sheep, goats, cattle and wild ibex (Chakrabarti 169). Today, the Thar Desert is arid and covered in sand. However, soil analysis shows that there could have been substantial vegetation cover in the past, supporting surface water and wild game (Allchin 19).

These varied geological and environmental features played an important role in the development of the Harappan civilization. This diversity provided a large number of raw resource deposits, allowing the Indus to be exporters of items such as shells, ivory, jade, beads and semi-precious stones (Chakrabarti 172). Furthermore, the surrounding mountain ranges and desert provided protection from invaders from the north, west and east, isolating the Indus Valley from others. The rivers offered resources for food, irrigation and trade (Fig. 3). Flooding created from the snow melts from the mountains created rich alluvial soils, abundant in minerals and excellent for farming. The fertile soil generated large quantities of cereal grains such as wheat, millets and barley and other cultivated plants such as dates, walnuts and field peas (Chakrabarti 169). The Harappan people may have practiced various subsistence strategies, including agro-pastoralism, fishing and hunter-gathering (Guha 55). Since the inhabitants of the Indus River Valley were dependent on the environment for survival, it’s no surprise that it played such a large role in their cultural development. One example of this influence can be found in their religious beliefs, more specifically from the worship of natural elements such as plants and animals. Deities were represented in the forms of the mother-goddess, fertility gods, sacred animals and sacret trees. Evidence for religious beliefs and practices of the Harappan people are limited because the Indus script has not yet been deciphered and no evident religious structures have been found. However, a certain amount of information has been gained from seals, terracotta figurines and ruins found at various archeological sites. Unfortunately these objects are open to a wide range of interpretation and the exact religious beliefs of this civilization are only speculations. The Indus civilization is believed to be polytheistic, worshipping many gods. They are thought to have worshipped gods and goddesses in male and female form including certain animals. Current archeological finds indicate the possible worship of a mother goddess who presided over fertility and birth, or the renewal of life after death. Artifacts seem to indicate a very early form of Hinduism. __ Seals __ Most of the seals, which are small, square inscribed soapstone objects, have been found at the sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. They were most likely used in trade, and were decorated with naturalistic designs depicting animals with some kind of inscription or numerals (Figs. 4 and 5). Chakrabarti writes in his book, India: An Archaeological History, “The animals represented on the seals included…unicorn, short-horned bull, buffalo, Brahamani bull, rhinoceros, tiger, horned tiger, elephant, horned elephant, fish-eating crocodile, antelopes, hare, etc. There are also mythological motifs, composite animals and plant forms” (182).
 * Religion:**

Bulls and horses were thought to be a symbol of fertility (Fig. 6). Seals also contain representations of what is believed to be a prototype of Siva. The three headed god crowned with hornlike projections sits in a yogic posture (Figs. 7 and 8), with his legs joined heel to heel and arms resting on his knees (Feuerstein et.al 72).

Many of these seals also contained motifs of animal and plant life commonly found in the Indus Valley. Some depict trees, a symbol for the tree of life; others combine what appear to be male/female deities (Fig. 9 and 10).

Phallic symbols, concerned with the promotion of fertility and representing the Hindu Siva lingam (Fig. 11) have also been found at Harappan sites (Kenoyer 66).

Overall, the seals focus on plants and animals with religious overtones indicating an agricultural civilization and a form of religious life focusing on nature. __ Figurines __ A large number of terracotta figurines have also been found in the Indus Valley, of both males, females and animals (Figs. 13 and 15). The female figurines are much more common (Fig. 12), have exaggerated features, are adorned with ornaments and are generally believed to be representations of the Great Mother (Possehl 502). As a result of these figurines, it has been widely suggested that the Harappan people worshipped a [|Mother goddess] symbolizing fertility. Other sculptures appear to have horn-like appendages (Fig. 14) most likely associated with deities. As an agricultural society, the Harappan people were concerned with growing seasons, fertility and the rebirth. All of these ideas can be seen in the artifacts found at various sites.

__



The Great Bath __ Although no obvious temples, palaces or other buildings for religious worship have been found, one possible religious structure maybe the Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro (Figs 16, 17 and 18). Excavated around the 1920’s the Great Bath is a “14.5m x 7m burnt-brick-built pool sunk 2.43m below the level of the surrounding open brick-paved courtyard” (1999/Chakrabarti 166). Most likely it was not constructed for the purposes of hygiene because private dwellings were equipped with bathrooms. Instead, it’s possible that the bath was used for purification rites or some form of ceremonial bathing. At a smaller citadel mound at Kalibangan site, there appears to be a row of fire altars on brick platforms. There are also what appear to be brick-lined pits containing animal bones and antlers, demonstrating possible animal sacrifices (Allchin 183). Purification rites and fire rituals may indicate the worship of the natural elements like fire and water.



The diverse and often unpredictable landscape provided significant difficulties in the day to day survival of the Indus Valley people. To overcome them, these hardships led to creative technological and scientific inventions. For example, due to the flooding of the rivers, there was a need for flood defense. Since stones were not readily available, and mud bricks would have been destroyed by rain or water, a new way of making bricks were developed (Allchin 176). Instead of drying them in the sun, they were fired or burned to make them harder and water proof (Fig. 19). Burnt bricks were also used in wells, drains and the numerous bathrooms found in city buildings. These bricks were manufactured in proportions of 4:2:1(Fig. 20), which is considered favorable for the stability of structures (Allchin 176).
 * Science and technology**



The use of environmental resources can be seen in various artifacts made of stones, metals, ivory and semi-precious stones. Many tools were developed and produced including items such as arrowheads (Fig. 21), daggers, razors, blade-axes (Fig. 22) saws, fish-hooks, needles, knifes, chisels and sickle-blades (Chakrabarti 177). A majority of these items were made of copper, since it was widely available in and around the area of the Indus civilization. By the late Harappan period, there was large scale mining and smelting taking place. New techniques in metallurgy were being developed and bronze, tin and lead objects were being produced (Chakrabarti 178).

 To overcome arid environments and make them suitable for farming, large scale irrigation systems were created. Numerous irrigation canals linked to rivers have been discovered. A canal system would consist of a main canal, which received water directly from the river. From it, would branch off smaller canals distributing the water to different areas (Chakrabarti 144). These canals filled up with water whenever the rivers swelled, carrying water throughout. In Kutch, water management in the form of reservoirs and dams have also been found.

Conclusion: ** People are not only dependent on the environment for survival, but it also plays a role in the development of their world view. Rivers are important for irrigation, for transportation, and as a source of food. The environment dictates the diet on which people depend, their lifestyles, the resources available to them, the physical location where to settle, and the tools which they will need to overcome these obstacles. Therefore, it’s no surprise that physical surroundings also shape a society's culture. This is no different within the Indus Valley civilization. Both their religious ideas and technological developments represent this influence, and therefore can be seen in the artifacts discovered at various sites.

** Bibliography ** 1) Harappan Civilization: A Recent Perspective. Edited by Gregory L. Possehl. New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., 1993.

2) The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Bridget Allchin and Raymond Allchin. New York, NY, Cambridge University Press, 1982.

3) The Oxford Companion to Indian Archeology: The Archeological Foundations of Ancient India Stone Age to 13th Century . Charkrabarti, Dilip. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

4) Operation of Geographic Factors in History. Semple, Ellen Churchill. Chapter in: //Influences of Geographic Environment//, 1-32. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1911. 5) India, an Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations. Charkrabarti, Dilip. New Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

6) In Search of the Cradle of Civilization: New Light on Ancient India. Feuerstein, George, Kak, Subhas and Frawley, David. Wheaton, Ill., Quest Books Theosophical Publishing House, 1995.

7) The Indus Civilization. By: Guha, Sudeshna, History Today, Vol. 57, Issue 10, 2007.

8) Uncovering the Keys to the Lost Indus Cities. By: Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark, Scientific American, Vol. 289, Issue 1, 2003.